B Explanatory
memorandum by Mr Mariani, rapporteur
1 Introduction
1. Chinese migration to Europe has become a more visible
topic in recent years due to the increase in international migration
from China after the liberalisation of the country’s travel regime
during the 1980s.
Note Although Chinese migration
to Europe is not a new phenomenon, Chinese communities in Europe
have become much more diverse, varying widely in their origins,
social background, and professions. An estimated 2.8 million Chinese
citizens currently reside legally in Council of Europe member States,
with the largest populations in France, Italy, the Russian Federation
and the United Kingdom. Additionally, registered Chinese populations
in southern and central Europe have increased, in some cases due
to regularisation programmes.
2. Furthermore, often in response to more stringent border controls,
the practice of illegal smuggling and trafficking networks has expanded
in scope. Many Chinese are obliged to work illegally after being
exploited by unscrupulous Chinese traffickers. These workers are
not entitled to any legal protection and their working conditions
are more often than not a new form of slavery. Frequently, these
workers create friction with the host societies, in competing work
sectors, as operating costs are substantially reduced when illegal
labour is utilised.
3. Finally, there remain concerns in some parts of the host population
as regard the ability of Chinese migrant communities to fully integrate
into the host societies. However, overall, it appears that Chinese migrants
integrate well in most host countries. China ranks second among
the largest remittance receiving countries with over US$25 billion
sent home by nationals working abroad.
Note
4. Overall, the rapid growth of the Chinese economy in the past
few decades has created both new challenges and opportunities in
Europe having an impact not only on industry, schools and universities,
but also raising questions regarding the potential for intercultural
dialogue and integration of the Chinese populations spread across
Europe.
5. This report will provide a broad-brush picture of Chinese
migration to Europe, beginning with historical waves of migration
and moving into current trends. I will highlight a couple of specific
issues unique to Chinese immigration, which present both challenges
policy makers must address and opportunities we should seize. In addition
to providing insight on the response and best practices which address
Chinese migration, I will provide recommendations for further co-operation
not only between member States but also for improving bilateral
co-operation with China in this area.
2 History
of Chinese migration in Europe
6. The influx of Chinese migrants to Europe has ebbed
and flowed with different phases of both Chinese domestic policy
as well as historical interactions with European countries. These
waves were relatively small compared to the current outflow of migrants
prompted by Chinese liberalisation of domestic restrictions on migration.
Historical Chinese migration continues to have an impact on current
trends and policy, especially with regard to regional source areas,
which are tied to specific destinations in Europe.
2.1 Migration waves
7. The first waves of Chinese migrants to Europe can
be traced back to the First Opium War (1839-41), when China was
forced to open its doors to western traders. Hong Kong was established
as a British colony in 1841; however it was not until 1860 that
China allowed its nationals the right to go abroad. These early migrant
workers, especially Chinese seamen, founded communities in Germany,
the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. Subsequent waves of Chinese
migrants correspond to the First and Second World Wars. During the
First World War, over 100 000 Chinese labourers came to Europe to
dig trenches in France and Belgium, however most of them left Europe
after the work was completed.
Note
8. Colonial connections became more relevant with regard to the
next large wave of Chinese migrants to Europe after the Second World
War. Thousands of Chinese, mainly from Hong Kong, migrated to the
United Kingdom and a few neighbouring countries during the post-war
period, many of them opening Chinese restaurants. However, during
the communist economy of Mao Zedong and after the formation of the
People’s Republic in 1949, migration was tightly controlled by the
State and, at times, emigration was even prohibited.
9. It was in the late 1970s and early 1980s that Chinese migration
to Europe began to accelerate at unprecedented rates. The catalyst
for this movement occurred in December 1978, when the Chinese Communist
Party enacted economic reforms with more open policies, establishing
formal diplomatic relations with the United States in January 1979.
These events brought about not only an increase in the volume of migrants
coming to Europe, but also an increase in their diversity. Additional
reforms in the mid-1980s allowed for more mobility within China
and the ability to leave the country for private reasons.
Note The issuance
of identity cards to Chinese residents meant that people could seek
work in coastal areas without having to first obtain permission
from local authorities. These reforms, which initially primarily
affected internal mobility, eventually spilled over into international
migratory trends to Europe. In recent years, local Chinese officials
have even begun to help facilitate migration from regions which
are common source regions for Europe. They have recognised the economic
benefits and do not seem particularly concerned about brain drain
as talent is quite mobile within China, with eastern boom towns
like Shanghai still attracting talent from inland regions.
Note
2.2 Number of Chinese
migrants in Europe
10. Since the relaxation of Chinese mobility restrictions,
Europe has become an increasingly popular destination for Chinese
migrants. There were an estimated 600 000 Chinese legal migrants
in Europe in 1980 compared to 2.15 million in 2007, ranking Europe
second in growth rate behind Africa.
Note
11. However, the sheer size of the total Chinese population somewhat
distorts the magnitude of the flows to Europe. China’s emigration
rate compared to countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD) is relatively low (only 0.2% of the population).
OECD data on Chinese inflows to Europe also indicate that rates
have stabilised and that there is unlikely to be much of an increase
in the near term. Any major fluctuations in recent years can primarily
be attributed to countries such as Spain and Italy, which adopted
large regularisation programmes. Chinese migrants to other parts
of Europe still register lower numbers than western Europe; however
there might be some evidence of an increasing trend in Hungary.
For the most part, it seems that Chinese migrants still view eastern
Europe and the Russian Federation as a transit destination and the
media tend to exaggerate the flow of Chinese into the far east of
the Russian Federation.
12. It is important to note here that data on Chinese migrants
in Europe is not entirely reliable due to increasing irregular migration
flows. The use of paid migration brokers, referred to as “snake
heads”, has become more common as migration restrictions have tightened
with economic downturns.
3 Current trends
of Chinese migration
13. Current trends in Chinese migration to Europe reflect
a complex interaction between “push” factors from China and “pull”
factors to Europe. In this section, I will cover trends in Russia
and eastern Europe, as well as in southern Europe, which have become
areas of particular focus for national policy makers in recent years. Additionally,
it is very important to stress here the diversity of the Chinese
migrant communities across Europe. Through understanding how regional
source areas in China are linked to specific member States, it will
become clearer how bilateral agreements with China could be facilitated,
especially with regional Chinese authorities.
3.1 “Push” and “pull”
factors of migration from China to Europe
14. The rise in Chinese migration to Europe stems from
a variety of factors which have encouraged migrants to leave China
and pursue work or study in European countries. Liberalisation of
the Chinese economy and growing international trade between China
and Europe have contributed significantly to migration flows. Furthermore,
well-established family networks have allowed migrants to follow
their friends and relatives to established communities in cities
across Europe, using in many cases irregular paths.
3.1.1 Liberalisation
of Chinese policy
15. As mentioned, the meteoric rise of the Chinese economy
in the 1990s was largely a result of liberalisation of Chinese policy,
spurring growth in many sectors and the reorganisation of formerly
State-owned enterprises. Not only did trade and foreign direct investment
increase, but State-owned enterprise reform in the late 1990s had
varied effects, impacting regions in China differently. This reform
led to the closure or transfer of many small and medium-sized businesses
into private hands or joint holdings, creating redundancies for
tens of millions of employees of former State-owned enterprises.
This heavily impacted China’s industrial heartland in the north-east.
Most of these redundant workers migrated internally in China; however,
a large portion of them also went to Europe in search of new opportunities.
Note Additionally,
the relaxation of mobility restrictions within China represents
a nearly complete reversal in the attitude of the Chinese Government
officials towards Chinese nationals leaving the country: rather
than restricting mobility, they seem to welcome these outward flows
as an opportunity for increased growth. In Beijing and Wenzhou, local
authorities attempt to brand themselves as migrant-exporting regions.
Note
3.1.2 Development of
irregular migration
16. The liberalisation of Chinese policy provoked a significant
increase in different forms of irregular migration. It is difficult
to estimate the exact number of irregular migrants from China due
to the difficulties in obtaining information on unauthorised stays.
China is nevertheless considered as a one of the main sources of
irregular migration to Europe.
Note
17. A large number of smuggling and human trafficking networks
run by “snake-heads” from the south-eastern provinces of China exploit
the important difference in economic development between the north
and the south of China. They smuggle migrants mostly to the eastern
European countries proposing them work and accommodation in exchange
for large sums of money.
18. In recent years, the problem of irregular migrants from China
has still been acute, although their number has reduced due to the
recession. China has also engaged in dialogue with the European
Union on migration issues with the aim of opening new legal ways
of mobility to Europe. In September 2013, the EU–China High-level
Summit was organised to deal with migration-related issues, including
trafficking. China has also adopted its National Plan against Trafficking
in Persons for 2013-2020.
3.1.3 Impact of the economic
crisis
19. The present global economic crisis has had a negative
impact on migration flows from China to Europe, due to less demand
for labour. However, as tends to be the case with illegal migratory
flows, lowered quotas and fewer possibilities for legal entry into
Europe have bolstered demand for paid facilitation of illegal avenues.
3.1.4 Well-established
family networks
20. Chinese migrants living and working abroad tend to
maintain a close relationship to China, particularly with regard
to sending remittances. Estimates of remittances place China second
only to India with US$25 billion sent home per year and still increasing.
Note This seems to confirm the idea that Chinese
diasporas maintain strong familial ties through financial support.
There is also strong evidence to suggest that family networks facilitate
movement abroad due to region-to-region connections between China
and Europe.
3.1.5 Globalisation of
Chinese business
21. Chinese entrepreneurship has gone global and migrants
have established themselves in niche fields throughout Europe, not
just in the traditional take-away food business, but by moving into
struggling fields and revitalising them. On a macro level, trade
between Europe and China has increased 6.26 fold, rising from US$68.1 billion
in 1999 to US$427 billion in 2009.
Note The
situation in the town of Prato provides an interesting example of
this phenomenon. Prato (north of Florence), once a stronghold of
the Italian textile industry, began to have trouble competing on
the international market in the 1980s. The traditional family firms
went into crisis and over time, new migrants from the Wenzhou region
took over parts of the textile industry. Therefore, rather than
being the source of the textile crisis in Prato, the Chinese migrants
filled a hole in the market and became a response to it.
3.1.6 Educational opportunities
22. The increasing level of wealth in China has provided
more middle-class Chinese families with the means to send their
children to universities abroad. Europe has become a more popular
choice for Chinese students, to some extent due to some waning interest
in the United States after post 9/11 immigration stringencies. Many Chinese
students who come to Europe for their studies eventually return
to China. However, some remain if job opportunities present themselves,
adding to the stock of highly-educated immigrants in Europe. The
United Kingdom, Germany and France are the most popular European
countries for student migration, but the Netherlands and Ireland
have also had increases due to the vast selection of university
courses offered in English.
Note
3.2 Chinese migration
to Russia and eastern Europe
23. There has been some concern among political leaders
that Chinese migration to Russia and eastern Europe has become a
more popular choice for organised labour trafficking. While this
is true to some extent, OECD figures indicate that the number of
Chinese nationals in these countries is still lower than in western Europe.
Note While
there is an increasing trend in eastern European member States,
the sharpest increases have been in Hungary. This is in part due
to the more relaxed visa requirements, during the 1990s in particular,
but also as a result of previous political linkages with China during
Hungary’s communist past.
Note
24. In the Russian Federation, media reports frequently exaggerate
the number of Chinese migrants in the Russian Far East. These reports
add to a fear that a flood of Chinese migrants will flow into the
eastern territories which border China with a population 20 times
the size of the Russian side. However, in reality, the Chinese represent
a small portion of the population in the Russian Far East. The Russian
media claims that the numbers are as high as 4 million, which would
make Chinese the fourth largest ethnic group in Russia. Although
accurate numbers are always difficult to ascertain due to illegal
flows, the Institute of Asia and Africa at Moscow State University
put the figure for Chinese residing in Russia between 200 000 and
450 000. The greatest discrepancies in estimates are in the Russian
Far East; however, it appears that many of these individuals are
just passing through, using Russia as a transit corridor.
Note The
Russian Federation faces similar demographic problems to western
Europe in terms of population decline. Chinese migrants from north-east China
might represent an opportunity to meet this challenge regarding
future labour shortages.
25. Chinese migrants in Russia and eastern Europe make very little
effort to integrate into host communities. Their communication with
the local population is very limited due to language problems and
their self-isolation. As their main reason for migration is to gain
money, they don’t see their country of residence as a destination country
and prefer to stay in their own closed environment. This creates
a negative perception of Chinese migrants among the local communities,
who very often link them to illegal activities.
3.3 Chinese migration
to southern Europe
26. The countries in southern Europe that have seen the
largest increases in Chinese migrants have been Italy and Spain,
where large regularisation programmes changed the status of many
irregular immigrants already living in these countries. In fact,
the economic crisis in these countries has almost certainly had
a negative effect on Chinese labour migration. However, Italy in
particular has seen a large concentration of Chinese migrants moving
into the textile industry near Florence. Chinese businesses import
cheaper materials from China and sometimes use illegal labour, making
it difficult for other vendors to compete with these low-end retailers,
on top of the human rights issues deriving from the irregular situation
of many workers. Additionally, some of the Chinese businesses seem
to be applying a strategy to avoid paying taxes. This involves opening
a business, closing it before tax police can register it, and then
reopening in the same space using a new tax code.
Note
27. As in the Russian Federation and eastern Europe, there are
concerns that the Chinese communities in southern Europe are showing
poor levels of integration. In northern Italy, tensions with the
Italian community are exacerbated by cultural and language differences
and a tendency for the Chinese community to appear somewhat insular.
This can create a situation in which migrant workers are more vulnerable
to employment abuse as they are more dependent on the employer.
It is estimated that in the textile industry, one in ten Chinese
workers do not have a residence permit.
Note
3.3.1 The Prato case
28. The first Chinese migrants arrived in Italy between
the 1950s and the 1970s to work in garment factories for Italian
companies. Soon after, they started to open their own small enterprises.
After the year 2000, the number of Chinese migrants tripled and
they now represent 20% of the total immigration population.
29. In general, these Chinese enterprises on Italian territory
are very small and usually comprise members of the family and friends
of the owner. The owner provides workers with accommodation and
board and often they live on the same premises as they work. Working
hours are not limited and they are paid at a piece-rate.
30. Many of these enterprises employ undocumented migrants and
do not respect the Italian employment legislation: few of them pay
taxes. Very often they do not respect security and sanitary conditions.
Such a situation led to an accident on 1 December 2013 in Prato,
where seven Chinese migrants died during a fire at one of these
premises.
31. After this accident, the Italian authorities started to pay
more attention to the working conditions of these enterprises and
sent 73 inspectors to check the standards in place. In 2014, during
these inspections, it was ascertained that 20% of Chinese migrants
are in an irregular situation.
32. In Prato, a city with a population of 190 000, 36 000 are
foreigners with more than 30 different nationalities and among them
15 000 are documented Chinese migrants. It is the biggest Chinese
community in Italy. The majority of them came from the Chinese province
of Wenzhou and they have established approximately 2 200 garment
enterprises.
33. They produce goods amounting to a value of 3 billion euros
a year, but this money does not stay in Italy. The only advantages
Italy earns from these businesses is the cheap merchandise for Italian
and other European enterprises, and the revenue from renting premises
to these Chinese firms.
34. In recent years, due to the economic crisis, there has been
some tension between the Chinese community and other migrant communities
in Prato. Very often, Chinese migrants are attacked or robbed.
35. The local authorities have tried to react to this situation
and have organised Italian language courses and cultural integration
activities, but these efforts are not reaching the Chinese immigrants,
as they prefer to remain in their own community. There is also the
problem of communication between Italians living in Prato and the
Chinese, as there is also little interest shown on the Italian side
to co-operate and interact with the migrants.
36. The main concern of the Chinese associations registered in
Prato is the absence of dialogue between the Italian community and
themselves on issues of mutual concern. They are also very unhappy
with the present labour and migration legislation in Italy. They
consider that the Government of Italy should amend its tax legislation
allowing irregular enterprises a transitional period for regularisation;
and that it is also important to adopt a legislation introducing
a minimum salary for workers in Italy, as well as short-term contracts.
37. In my opinion, Chinese migration to Italy can provide new
opportunities for the Tuscany region. The region has already developed
new business contacts with China in different sectors, in particular
the wine industry, railway communications, transport and medicine.
38. Unfortunately, the Chinese Government does not allow dual
nationality, which creates problems for many Chinese families living
in Europe who wish to keep links with their country of origin.
39. As regards the specific problem of the city of Prato, I think
that the local authorities should sign ethics pacts with Chinese
enterprises, which will oblige them to implement the labour legislation
in force and respect normal working conditions and security measures.
It is also important to ensure that working migrants are represented
politically at local level.
3.4 Diversification
of Chinese communities
40. Although Chinese migrants are often spoken about
as being a somewhat homogeneous group, they are actually very diverse,
differing in language, regional origin, religion, etc.
Note They
are also becoming more divided generationally, as European Chinese
grow up with different values and customs than their parents.
41. Aside from these differences, the main regions from which
Chinese migrants to Europe come have been changing over the past
few decades. Historically, “old” immigrants to Europe came from
Hong Kong and Indochina, but newer waves come predominantly from
the Zheijiang and Fujian provinces. Europe’s Chinese immigrant origins
are thus shifting to China’s Dongbei (north-east) region. This shift
corresponds to changing preferences of the labour model favoured
by different groups, with the new immigrants from Zheijiang and Fujian
tending toward more entrepreneurial career paths.
Note The
differences between Chinese communities in each of the member States
should be considered within the context of policy formulation. Taking
into account the regional origin and labour market preferences of
the Chinese community in each context is necessary in order to adequately
deal with each group.
4 New challenges
42. The increased Chinese population across Europe presents
a number of important challenges, which will have to be addressed
through legislation and policy both in individual member States
and potentially through bilateral agreements with China. The increasingly
codified systems of illegal smuggling and trafficking present a
major threat to migrants themselves. Furthermore, there have been
tragic episodes of deaths of migrant workers who are often put in
extremely dangerous and poor working conditions. It is therefore
necessary to protect the rights of labour migrants who are subjected
to these conditions, and to work with Chinese officials to prevent
the smuggling and trafficking rings which facilitate these situations
upon their arrival in Europe.
4.1 Development of
organised human trafficking
43. The use of paid migration brokers, referred to as
“snake heads”, varies according to where the migrants originate
from and where they plan to travel to in Europe. For instance, nearly
all migration from the Fujian province to the United Kingdom is
irregular. These migrants mostly come from the Fuzhou area, where
local authorities tightly control emigration and coming to the United
Kingdom presents more geographic obstacles than going to continental
Europe. These illegal networks also work to exploit differences
in national migration legislation. Until recently, the United Kingdom
provided asylum applicants with the right to work after staying
in the country for six months.
Note Migrants often pay an extremely
high price to “snake heads”. A recent police operation in Spain
and France raided a human trafficking ring, which was charging €40 000
to €50 000 per person to smuggle Chinese migrants to Europe and
the United States.
Note
44. In order to combat these organised trafficking networks, it
will be necessary for the European Union and member States to work
closely with China, to identify avenues of collaboration. The Capacity
Building for Migration Management in China (CBMM-China) project
highlighted areas where a joint approach between China and Europe
could prove the most effective, namely criminal investigation to
identify smuggling and trafficking networks operating between China
and Europe. Furthermore, exchanges between Chinese and European
prosecutors ensure admissibility in court and exchange of intelligence.
Note Member States should
also collaborate with the Chinese Ministry of Public Security to
identify irregular Chinese migrants being held in European reception
centres.
4.2 Employment conditions
and protection of rights of migrants
45. As labour migrants, the Chinese sometimes face extremely
challenging or unsafe working conditions, working for very little
pay in many cases. Due to the structure of migration flows, the
migrants can find themselves in a position of dependency on the
employer, especially for instance when the migrant does not speak
the language of the destination country well.
46. With the recent ten-year anniversary of the tragic drowning
of 23 Chinese cockle pickers in Morecambe Bay, the event lives on
in the British public consciousness. On the evening of 5 February
2004, 40 Chinese workers were picking cockles in the bay, working
against tidal charts and safety codes. The recruiter and manager,
Ah Ren, in order to maximise profits, had the workers out in the
Bay until 8:30 p.m., two hours after they should have been told
to leave. There were 16 survivors. All but one of the 23 victims
were from Fujian, many of them having left their families back in
China crippled with debt. To avoid a tragedy like this happening again,
member States should work with Chinese officials to prevent the
flow of illegal workers and provide more legal avenues for labour
migrants to work in Europe under safe, regulated conditions.
4.3 Integration problems
47. The issue of integrating Chinese migrants into European
cities has become a challenge that member States must find ways
to address. The problem seems more serious in Russia and eastern
Europe, where Chinese migrants still view their stay as temporary
and therefore make less of an effort to integrate. The Chinese community
in Italy also merits particular consideration in this regard. Italy
is home to one of the largest Chinese populations in Europe, with
Chinese-owned craft workshops representing 20% of the companies
in the Emilia Romagna region in northern Italy.
Note Both
the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and Consorzio
Spinner, a local consortium of research groups, have provided examples
of how communication between the Italian authorities and Chinese
business owners can be improved to encourage regularisation of these
businesses. Providing platforms for exchange and workshops can help
integration of this somewhat insular group.
48. There is also a new problem of second and even third-generation
Chinese migrants in Europe. These young people were brought up and
educated in the host communities; they speak the local language
and sometimes do not even understand Chinese. Usually, they do not
have any special attachment to China – as their parents had – and
they see their future in Europe. Unfortunately, very often they
are also faced with discrimination and non-acceptance by the host
communities. Therefore, they have difficulties in integrating into the
local communities and, as a result, in finding jobs. I would support
the point of view of a young man representing one Chinese cultural
association in Prato, who believes that only by promoting formal
and non-formal cultural and economic exchanges with host communities
will it be possible to eliminate the barriers and gain access to
the labour market.
5 Opportunities for
Europe
49. The influx of Chinese migrants to Europe should also
be viewed in terms of the inherent potential for growth which these
migrants present. Europe has already seen tremendous benefits from
exponentially increasing trade with China and Chinese investment
in Europe. Both China and Europe stand to gain a great deal from
increased interconnectivity and mutual investment.
5.1 Investment opportunities
in the European Union
50. Although trade between the European Union and China
has increased tremendously, foreign direct investment (FDI) from
Europe to China has grown at a relatively constant rate. On the
other hand, outward direct investment (ODI) from China to Europe
has shown a rapid rate of growth during the same period.
Note This level
of investment in Europe not only presents an important opportunity
for growth, but also suggests there will be no immediate halt to
demand for immigrants in these increasingly diversified Chinese
businesses.
5.2 Student mobility
51. China remains the largest source country for international
students globally, with the United Kingdom receiving the largest
share (65 906 or about half of the total Chinese student population
in Europe).
Note This growth
in Europe's ability to attract Chinese students presents an opportunity
for member States to convert this trend into more high skilled labour.
Germany in particular has taken the lead in facilitating the ease
with which international students may stay on if they are able to
find work after their studies have concluded. New legislation introduced
in 2012 will give students and academics less restrictions on their
ability to seek work, giving students 18 instead of 12 months to
look for work and consent from the Federal Labour Agency is not required.
Note Measures
like these could be adopted in other member States to encourage
more students, and thus high skilled labour, to stay. Recent immigration
policy changes in China also indicate a shift in Chinese policy
to promote the attraction of high skilled labour; therefore this
could be something on which European member States will soon be
competing with China.
Note
6 European response
to new challenges of Chinese migration
52. The European response to some of the challenges resulting
from Chinese migration to Europe has been primarily in the form
of efforts to work with China on many of these issues. This has
been done not only through bilateral agreements between China and
individual member States, but also on a multilateral basis providing participants
from both Europe and China with a platform for exchange.
6.1 Co-operation on
border management and combating irregular migration
53. The Capacity Building for Migration Management in
China Project has provided policy makers and migration authorities
with a platform for co-operation. This project is a joint undertaking,
which has involved co-ordination with the IOM, the International
Labour Organization (ILO), the Government of the People’s Republic of
China (PRC), the European Union and various member States. It is
primarily funded by the European Commission, with co-funding from
the Italian Ministry of the Interior and the United Kingdom Border
Agency. Chinese authorities have been able to engage with European
Union officials and to exchange ideas and practices, enhancing top-level
dialogue, but also by providing technical support through training
and best practices.
54. On 5 and 6 September 2013, under the framework of the CBMM
project, the EU–China Seminar on Migration and Mobility brought
together over 120 senior government officials from the European
Union and China in Beijing. During this exchange, Mr Xie Luning,
Deputy Director of the Ministry of Public Security, spoke about
China’s second National Plan of Action to combat trafficking in
human beings. He emphasised the importance of international collaboration
on border management, international policing, and the efficient
return and reintegration of trafficking victims. In turn, Ms Katelijne
Bergans, Vice-Director-General of the Belgian Immigration Office
presented Belgium’s four-phase approach to identification and protection
of trafficking victims.
Note These examples show that workshops
and policy dialogues provide a valuable forum for information exchange
and the formulation of joint, practical steps towards preventing
labour exploitation.
55. In the framework of informal bilateral collaboration, the
Belgian authorities reached an understanding with the Chinese embassy
that identification and removal of Chinese irregular migrants could
be made on the basis of nationality, rather than purely on identity.
These migrants often do not possess a valid passport and are unwilling
to co-operate with European officials, but once they are returned
to China, they typically reveal their true identity to Chinese officials.
Unfortunately, the Chinese authorities have ceased this practice
without explaining why, but if official bilateral agreements of
this sort could be signed with the Chinese Government, safer, efficient
returns could be facilitated for irregular migrants in Europe.
Note
6.2 Promotion of safe
and regular migration
56. In order to promote safe and regular migration, the
CBMM project identified three provinces that have been associated
with irregular migration (namely Fujian, Shandong and Liaoning),
and mounted awareness- raising campaigns targeted at potential migrants
in these areas. The objective of these efforts was to prevent irregular
migration and encourage migration through safe channels by increasing
the potential migrants’ knowledge of their options.
Note
6.3 Good practices
of integration strategies for Chinese communities
57. There are a couple of notable examples of bilateral
agreements between China and individual member States, which could
serve as examples of best practices for integrating local Chinese
communities. In 2003, roughly 7% of immigrants in Hungary were Chinese,
thus leading to a bilateral agreement between the Chinese and Hungarian
Governments to open a Chinese school in Budapest. Accepting both
Chinese and Hungarian children, the school emphasises a “double”
identity, tolerance and cultural dialogue.
Note
58. In 2013, the Danish Ministry of Social Affairs, Children and
Integration signed a bilateral social security agreement with the
Chinese Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, which entered
into force in May 2014.
Note This agreement enabled Chinese employees
employed in Denmark by Chinese enterprises to remain covered by
Chinese social security and exempted Danish employees posted in
China from paying contributions to Chinese old-age pension.
59. Another example of good practice can be taken from civil society
in Italy. In 2000, Consorzio Spinner initiated a project to connect
with the Chinese community in northern Italy in an attempt to encourage
Chinese entrepreneurs to regularise their business practices in
the textile industry. In order to breakdown linguistic and cultural
barriers, Spinner sent Chinese intercultural intermediaries into
different firms as liaison officers. Spinner also produced a bilingual
manual in Chinese and Italian, containing comprehensive guidelines
for running a business in Italy.
Note
60. Both these examples highlight creative approaches to reaching
out to the unique situation of Chinese migrants in these member
States. The member States of the Council of Europe should consider
which approach would best address the situation of the Chinese community
present in their own country.
7 Conclusions and
recommendations
61. In this report, I have illustrated some of the most
visible challenges and opportunities which Chinese immigration to
Europe presents. Although Chinese migration to Europe presents human
rights concerns with regard to trafficking and smuggling rings,
as well as the poor working conditions these migrants often face
when they arrive in Europe through these means, we should not forget
the multitude of positive opportunities that legal Chinese migration
presents. Member States should find ways to work with Chinese officials
to protect individuals from falling prey to illegal networks and
poor work conditions, but member States should also create policies
that encourage highly skilled students to remain in Europe after
they have finished their studies.
62. Furthermore, we should encourage member States to find a dialogue
with Chinese organisations and civil society to create projects
which can be tailored to the integration needs of the local Chinese
communities. The examples in Italy and Hungary show positive steps
to engage directly Chinese communities in these countries.
