Islam, Islamism and Islamophobia in Europe
- Author(s):
- Parliamentary Assembly
- Origin
- Assembly debate on 23 June 2010
(23rd Sitting) (see Doc.
12266, report of the Committee on Culture, Science and Education,
rapporteur: Mr Mogens Jensen; Doc.
12303, opinion of the Political Affairs Committee, rapporteur: Mr Hancock; Doc. 12305, opinion
of the Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights, rapporteur:
Mr Rafael Huseynov; and Doc.
12304, opinion of the Committee on Equal Opportunities
for Women and Men, rapporteur: Mrs Memecan). Text adopted
unanimously by the Assembly on 23 June 2010 (23rd Sitting).
See also Recommendation
1927 (2010).
- Thesaurus
1. The Parliamentary Assembly notes
that Islamic radicalism and manipulation of religious beliefs for political
reasons oppose human rights and democratic values. At the same time,
in many Council of Europe member states, Muslims feel socially excluded,
stigmatised and discriminated against; they become victims of stereotypes,
social marginalisation and political extremism. The Assembly is
deeply concerned about Islamic extremism as well as about extremism
against Muslim communities in Europe. Both phenomena reinforce each other.
2. The Assembly recalls that Islamism is the view that Islam
is not only a religion but also a social, legal and political code
of conduct. Islamism can be violent or mainstream and peaceful,
but in both cases it does not accept the separation between religion
and state, which is a fundamental principle of democratic and pluralistic
societies. The Assembly also recalls that discrimination against
Muslims is unacceptable and must be combated. A great majority of
European Muslims share the principles at the basis of our societies
and it is essential to fight against Islamophobia, which stems mainly
from lack of awareness and from negative perceptions associating
Islam with violence. Failing to address these issues, many European
governments pave the way to the rise of extremism.
3. Muslims are at home in Europe where they have been present
for many centuries, as the Assembly noted in its
Recommendation 1162 (1991) on
the contribution of the Islamic civilisation to European culture. Islam,
Judaism and Christianity – the three monotheist religions – share
the same historic and cultural roots and recognise the same fundamental
values, in particular the paramount value of human life and dignity,
the ability and freedom to express thoughts, the respect for others
and their property, and the importance of social welfare. Those
values have been reflected by European philosophies and have been
included in the European Convention on Human Rights (“the Convention”;
ETS No. 5).
4. Article 9 of the Convention guarantees freedom of thought,
conscience and religion, including the right to manifest one’s religion
or belief, either alone or in community with others, in public or
in private, in worship, teaching, practice and observance. Article
10 of the Convention enshrines freedom of expression, including
the right to express religious or philosophical views or oppose
and criticise them. Both freedoms constitute the necessary requirements
for a democratic society. However, they are not absolute and may
be subject to limits imposed under strict control. Moreover, in
accordance with Article 17 of the Convention, they must not be abused
for the destruction or undue limitation of any of the rights and
freedoms set forth in the Convention.
5. The Assembly has already stressed the importance of reconciling
these two freedoms in its
Resolution 1510
(2006) on freedom of expression and respect for religious
beliefs, as well as its
Recommendation 1805 (2007) on
blasphemy, religious insults and hate speech against persons on
grounds of their religion. The Assembly firmly condemns death decrees
and threats against people who criticise Islam or political views linked
to Islam. It regrets, however, the initiatives taken by a number
of United Nations member states that have resulted in the Human
Rights Council adopting resolutions on action against defamation
of religions, and in particular Islam, as this strategy constitutes
a threat to freedom of expression.
6. Recalling its
Recommendation
1804 (2007) on state, religion, secularity and human
rights, the Assembly emphasises that democratic standards require
a separation of the state and its organs from religions and religious
organisations. Governments, parliaments and public administrations
that democratically reflect and serve their society as a whole must
be neutral towards all religious, agnostic or atheist beliefs. Nevertheless, religion
and democracy are not incompatible, in particular as religions may
play a beneficial social role. Member states should therefore encourage
religious organisations to support actively peace, tolerance, solidarity
and intercultural dialogue.
7. The Assembly notes with concern, however, that some Islamic
organisations active in member states have been initiated by governments
abroad and receive financial support and political guidance from
those governments. The objectives of such organisations are hence
not religious. National political expansion into other states under
the disguise of Islam should be brought to light. In keeping with
Article 11 of the Convention, member states can limit the activities
of such organisations on condition that such limitations satisfy
the requirements set forth in paragraph 2 of Article 11. Therefore,
member states should require transparency and accountability of
Islamic as well as other religious associations, for instance by
requiring transparency of their statutory objectives, leadership,
membership and financial resources.
8. As the Assembly indicated in its
Recommendation 1774 (2006) on the
Turkish presence in Europe: migrant workers and new European citizens,
member governments and parliaments as well as the Council of Europe
must give priority to fostering the social inclusion of Muslims
and other religious minorities. The many efforts undertaken by member
states to better integrate migrants are to be commended, but this
integration is often still far from reality, in particular with
regard to Muslim migrants. Thus, the Assembly invites member states
to be proactive in dealing with social, economic and political inequalities.
9. The Assembly calls on member states to effectively address
the social and economic exclusion of Muslims and other minorities
in Europe – including through the adoption, implementation and regular monitoring
of comprehensive anti-discrimination legislation, policies and practices
to protect them from the day-to-day discrimination they face and
to ensure better access to legal remedies when their rights have
been violated.
10. While organisational structures of Muslim communities in member
states are desirable in order to facilitate contacts with governmental
and administrative bodies, member governments and parliaments should also
seek to establish direct political contacts with Muslims as equal
citizens. Such direct contacts could be facilitated, for example,
through public hearings at local and regional levels as well as
through regional and national discussion platforms on the Internet.
Referring to Recommendation 170 (2005) of the Congress of Local
and Regional Authorities of the Council of Europe on intercultural
and inter-faith dialogue: initiatives and responsibilities of local
authorities, the Assembly calls on national parliaments to ensure
that local authorities in their countries have the necessary legal,
administrative and financial frameworks for local activities intended to
foster social inclusion and intercultural dialogue.
11. It is necessary that persons belonging to a minority culture
in their country do not isolate themselves and do not attempt to
develop a parallel society. Thus the Assembly calls on the representatives
of the Muslim communities to encourage intercultural dialogue and
fight against divisions which would otherwise lead to societal frictions
and conflicts. Recalling its
Resolution
1605 (2008) and
Recommendation
1831 (2008) on European Muslim communities confronted
with extremism, the Assembly invites Muslims, their religious communities
and their religious leaders to combat any form of extremism under
the cover of Islam. Islam is a religion which upholds peace. Muslims
should be the first to react with dismay and opposition when terrorists or
political extremists use Islam for their own power struggle and
thus disrespect the fundamental value of human life and other values
enshrined in Islam.
12. The Assembly deplores that a growing number of political parties
in Europe exploit and encourage fear of Islam and organise political
campaigns which promote simplistic and negative stereotypes concerning Muslims
in Europe and often equate Islam with extremism. It is inadmissible
to incite intolerance and sometimes even hatred against Muslims.
The Assembly calls on member states to pursue political action in accordance
with General Policy Recommendation No. 5 (2000) of the European
Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) on combating intolerance
and discrimination against Muslims. It reiterates that it is for the
member states to reject political statements that stir up fear and
hatred of Muslims and Islam, while complying with the stipulations
of the Convention, in particular Article 10.2.
13. The Assembly also remains concerned at policies and practices
– by both national as well as regional and local authorities – that
discriminate against Muslims and at the danger of the abuse of popular
votes, initiatives and referenda to legitimise restrictions on the
rights to freedom of religion and expression which are unacceptable
under Articles 9 and 10 of the Convention. In this context, the
Assembly is particularly concerned about the recent referendum in
Switzerland and urges the Swiss authorities to enact a moratorium
on and repeal as soon as possible, the general prohibition on the
construction of minarets for mosques.
14. Recalling its
Resolution
1464 (2005) on women and religion in Europe, the Assembly
calls on all Muslim communities to abandon any traditional interpretations
of Islam which deny gender equality and limit women’s rights, both
within the family and in public life. This interpretation is not
compatible with human dignity and democratic standards; women are
equal to men in all respects and must be treated accordingly, with
no exceptions. Discrimination against women, whether based on religious
traditions or not, goes against Articles 8, 9 and 14 of the Convention,
Article 5 of its Protocol No. 7 and its Protocol No. 12. No religious
or cultural relativism may be invoked to justify violations of personal
integrity. The Parliamentary Assembly therefore urges member states
to take all necessary measures to stamp out radical Islamism and Islamophobia,
of which women are the prime victims.
15. In this respect, the veiling of women, especially full veiling
through the burqa or the niqab, is often perceived as a symbol
of the subjugation of women to men, restricting the role of women
within society, limiting their professional life and impeding their
social and economic activities. Neither the full veiling of women,
nor even the headscarf, are recognised by all Muslims as a religious
obligation of Islam, but they are seen by many as a social and cultural
tradition. The Assembly considers that this tradition could be a
threat to women’s dignity and freedom. No woman should be compelled
to wear religious apparel by her community or family. Any act of
oppression, sequestration or violence constitutes a crime that must
be punished by law. Women victims of these crimes, whatever their
status, must be protected by member states and benefit from support
and rehabilitation measures.
16. For this reason, the possibility of prohibiting the wearing
of the burqa and the niqab is being considered by parliaments
in several European countries. Article 9 of the Convention includes
the right of individuals to choose freely to wear or not to wear
religious clothing in private or in public. Legal restrictions to
this freedom may be justified where necessary in a democratic society,
in particular for security purposes or where public or professional
functions of individuals require their religious neutrality or that
their face can be seen. However, a general prohibition of wearing
the burqa and the niqab would deny women who freely
desire to do so their right to cover their face.
17. In addition, a general prohibition might have the adverse
effect of generating family and community pressure on Muslim women
to stay at home and confine themselves to contacts with other women.
Muslim women could be further excluded if they were to leave educational
institutions, stay away from public places and abandon work outside
their communities, in order not to break with their family tradition.
Therefore, the Assembly calls on member states to develop targeted
policies intended to raise Muslim women’s awareness of their rights,
help them to take part in public life and offer them equal opportunities
to pursue a professional life and gain social and economic independence.
In this respect, the education of young Muslim women as well as
of their parents and families is crucial. It is especially necessary
to remove all forms of discrimination against girls and to develop
education on gender equality, without stereotypes and at all levels
of the education system.
18. Female genital mutilation under the pretext of Islamic or
other customs should be considered as a crime as it violates the
right to physical and moral integrity of all individuals and especially
of girls. Member states must do their utmost to put an end to this
crime and provide practical help to children and their parents, including
in particular through education. The Assembly recalls in this context
its
Resolution 1247 (2001) on female
genital mutilation.
19. The Assembly accordingly urges member states to take every
step to prevent and combat all forms of oppression or violence undergone
by women and, in particular, as part of the negotiations for the
future Council of Europe convention on preventing and combating
violence against women and domestic violence, to support the provisions
enabling women irrespective of their origin or status to have access
to protection, prevention and rehabilitation facilities.
20. Stereotypes, misunderstandings and fears with regard to Islam
are typical symptoms of a widespread lack of adequate knowledge
among non-Muslims in Europe. Similarly, many Muslims in Europe lack
adequate knowledge of Islam let alone other religions, which can
make them vulnerable to “Islamism” as a religiously disguised form
of political extremism. In this context, the Assembly recalls its
Recommendation 1720 (2005) on
education and religion and calls on member states to ensure that
knowledge about Islam, Judaism and Christianity is taught at school
and through lifelong education.
21. Teaching about religions should be supported by member states,
to raise public awareness of the common origin and values of Judaism,
Christianity and Islam and their impact on modern European humanism. Institutions
of higher education and research in Europe should provide Islamic
studies in order to educate religious scholars, teachers and leaders
and distinguish Islam from Islamism. The Assembly is confident that most
European Muslims accept a common approach reconciling Islam with
democratic values, human rights and the rule of law; indeed, many
have done so for a long time.
22. The Assembly also welcomes the White Paper on Intercultural
Dialogue prepared by the Council of Europe during the European Year
of Intercultural Dialogue in 2008 as well as other activities by
the Committee of Ministers in this field. Member governments should
use the White Paper in their related national action, including
in schools and educational institutions.
23. It is important to create synergies with other international
organisations in this respect. Therefore, the Assembly invites the
United Nations Alliance of Civilizations to co-operate more closely
with the Council of Europe, in particular by setting up joint programmes
of action. In this context, the Assembly invites the Secretary General
of the Council of Europe to seek additional funding for such activities
through member states and facilitate reciprocal secondment of staff
between the two organisations.
24. The Assembly invites the Islamic Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (ISESCO) and the Arab League Educational,
Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALECSO) to work with the Council
of Europe on combating Islamism and Islamophobia or other religious
discrimination as well as on promoting the respect for universal
human rights. ISESCO and ALESCO can be particularly important in
ensuring that their members respect the International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant
on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) of the United Nations.
25. In this context, the Assembly regrets that some member governments
of ISESCO and ALECSO have adopted national legislation based on
an interpretation of Sharia law or have pursued national policies
which are in conflict with the ICCPR and the ICESCR: imposing severe
penalties or even the death penalty on persons wishing to adopt
a religion other than Islam is incompatible with Article 18 (2)
ICCPR; imposing severe sanctions on, or passing public death decrees
against, persons who have criticised Islam is incompatible with Article
19 of the ICCPR; calling for a “holy war” or violence against other
countries or their citizens and glorifying terrorists as “holy martyrs”
is incompatible with Article 20 (2) of the ICCPR; educating children
to hate or fight persons of faiths other than Islam is incompatible
with Article 13 (1) of the ICESCR.
26. Contacts between Muslim and non-Muslim Europeans and Muslims
in North Africa, the Middle East and Asia should be facilitated,
in particular among young people, students and teachers. The Assembly
invites, therefore, the European Youth Forum to expand its activities
in this field. Co-operation between educational and cultural institutions
as well as cities around the Mediterranean Basin should be supported,
for instance in the framework of the Convention on the Recognition
of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region
(ETS No. 165) and the European Outline Convention on Transfrontier
Co-operation between Territorial Communities or Authorities (CETS
No. 106).