B Explanatory
memorandum by Mr Blum, rapporteur
1 Introduction
1. The Council of Europe and the Parliamentary Assembly
have for several years been involved in extensive discussions and
practical projects concerned with fostering co-operation with the
countries of the southern Mediterranean shore, and, in particular,
the central Maghreb states: Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia.
2. In its
Resolution
1506 (2006) on external relations of the Council of Europe
and
Recommendation 1724 (2005) on
the Council of Europe and the European Neighbourhood Policy of the
European Union, the Parliamentary Assembly reaffirmed its commitment
to promoting democracy, the rule of law and human rights beyond
its member countries’ borders, and particularly in the southern
Mediterranean region. In its
Resolution 1598
(2008) and
Recommendation
1825 (2008) on strengthening co-operation and exchanges
with the Maghreb countries, it confirmed its commitment to “strengthening
co-operation and exchanges with the Maghreb countries, which it
regards as one of the pillars of stability in the Euro-Mediterranean
region and as key partners”.
3. The current framework for co-operation with the Maghreb countries
is moreover defined by
Resolution 1680
(2009) on the establishment of a “partner for democracy”
status with the Parliamentary Assembly,
Recommendation 1893 (2009) on the
future of the European Centre for Global Interdependence and Solidarity (North-South
Centre) and
Resolution
1731 (2010) and
Recommendation
1919 (2010) on the Euro-Mediterranean region: call for
a Council of Europe strategy
. In
Resolution 1731 (2010),
the Assembly reaffirms its belief that peace and stability in the
Mediterranean region can only be secured in the long term on the
basis of democracy, human rights and the rule of law, and notes
that several Mediterranean countries have shown interest in taking
advantage of the Council of Europe’s expertise in this field.
4. The rapporteur welcomes this broad-ranging and open approach
to exchanges with the countries of the Maghreb. Nevertheless, he
considers that particular emphasis should be placed on co-operation
regarding social cohesion.In
their action plan, adopted at the 3rd Summit in Warsaw (16-17 May
2005), the heads of state and government identified social cohesion
as one of the “essential enabling factors for effective implementation of
Council of Europe core values in our societies”. Similarly, the
ministers of Council of Europe member states responsible for social
cohesion, meeting in Moscow on 26 and 27 February 2009, called on
the Committee of Ministers “to recognise that social cohesion supports
the core objectives of the Council of Europe on human rights, democracy
and the rule of law”. The rapporteur supports these declarations
and considers that any efforts to promote the Council of Europe’s
fundamental values beyond its frontiers must be backed up by a policy
on co-operation with regard to social cohesion.
5. As a member of the French National Assembly representing Bouches-du-Rhône
and first deputy Mayor of Marseilles, the rapporteur comes from
a region and a city where the interdependence of Europe and the southern
Mediterranean shore are particular evident.This
interdependence concerns all the countries of Europe and means that,
over and above their commitment to promoting shared values beyond
our frontiers, they have a particular responsibility to contribute
to the development of their neighbours in a number of areas, including
social cohesion, as this report will set out to illustrate.
6. The initial aim was to look at possible areas of co-operation
for combating social exclusion. However, the preparatory work on
this report showed that the notion of social exclusion was not perceived
or defined in the same way in Europe and the Maghreb, and that European
concepts cannot automatically be applied directly to other countries.
The rapporteur therefore decided to broaden the perspective – and
thus the title of the report – to highlight the context in which
co-operation between the Council of Europe and the Maghreb countries
could and should be conducted with regard to social cohesion, including
efforts to combat all forms of exclusion.
2 Problems
of social cohesion in the Maghreb countries and general responses
7. Since the independence of the central Maghreb countries
(Algeria 1962, Morocco 1956, Tunisia 1956), social progress and
economic development have been parallel objectives of these independent
states and their regimes. Although their political paths have differed,
these countries have finally converged towards a process of globalisation
and economic liberalism.
Note However,
their economic and social development has differed significantly
from that of the Council of Europe member states. In their commitment
to supporting social cohesion in the Maghreb, member states must
not try to apply European concepts to the letter, but must take account
of the specific political, economic, and social contexts of each
of these countries. These are very complex and will only be touched
on briefly in this report, so as to identify the main areas for
co-operation with the Council of Europe with regard to social cohesion.
2.1 Algeria
8. Algeria is the largest of the three Maghreb countries,
with more than 35 million inhabitants. The country has been independent
since the Evian agreements with France of 5 July 1962. It is governed
by President Abdelaziz Bouteflika, who was re-elected for a third
term on 9 April 2009. Despite progress concerning democratisation,
certain restrictions with regard to exercising political freedoms
have still been noted in recent years, for example when it comes
to registering political parties or the persecution of militants
of the opposition. Economically, it is richly endowed with oil,
gas (5th largest producer in the world), iron ore, gold, zinc and uranium
deposits. It is one of the richest countries in Africa in terms
of GNP (US$60 billion) and its healthy economic growth rate (4.8%,
not including oil, and nearly US$110 billion of exchange reserves)
has permitted the early repayment of its debt, so that its foreign
debt now only represents 1% of GNP.
9. Despite major work programmes across the country, the unemployment
rate is still relatively high, though it has fallen since 2008,
to 10.2% in late 2009. Women and young persons are the worst affected. Nearly
three out of four unemployed (73.4%) are aged under 30, and 86.7%
are under 35. Algeria has a very young population, with 65% aged
under 30. About 30% of the population is illiterate, with much higher
rates in certain categories, such as rural women, where the figure
is 55%. Algeria is a transit country to Europe for men and women
from sub-Saharan Africa who are victims of sexual trafficking and
other involuntary services, yet another in the list of social problems
to be dealt with.
Note
10. The state dominates the Algerian economy and development of
the private sector remains limited, although the gradual liberalisation
since the 1990s has opened up the market to national and international private
investment. However, the government’s efforts to diversify the economy
through domestic and foreign investment outside the energy sector
have done little to reduce the high unemployment rate or improve
living standards. Despite its strong performance on macroeconomic
indicators, Algeria continues to suffer from structural weaknesses,
the most important of which is its heavy dependence on oil revenues,
which account for 50% of GDP, 75% of tax income and 98% of its exports.
In response, a supplementary finance act came into force in July
2009. This restricts the import of certain products as a means of
strengthening the local economy.
Note
11. Algeria has set itself the priority of improving the welfare
of the entire population through an equal sharing of the fruits
of growth. In recent decades, much progress has been made towards
reducing poverty and social exclusion. Between 1988 and 2000, the
proportion of the population living in extreme poverty (1 purchasing
power parity (PPP) dollar per day and per person) fell from 1.9%
to 0.8%, a reduction of 58%. The incidence of general poverty (2
PPP dollars), estimated at 12.1% in 2000, had fallen to 6.8% in
2004. The country’s human development index has improved rapidly
in recent years and extreme poverty has been practically eliminated.
Note
12. However, national data can sometimes conceal disparities between
urban and rural environments and between regions. The main pockets
of poverty are still to be found in rural areas and on the edges
of large cities. And even if Algeria has largely succeeded in eliminating
financial poverty, it continues to face new human development challenges,
such as mortality rates among the under fives, maternal mortality,
quality of education, female illiteracy, HIV/Aids, the environment
and problems of governance, as well as challenges regarding certain
particularly vulnerable groups, such as children, the elderly, the
disabled and the unemployed.
Note
2.2 Morocco
13. Morocco has more than 33 million inhabitants, 55%
of whom live in large cities such as Casablanca (3.4 million inhabitants)
and Rabat (1.7 million). It was a French protectorate from 1912
to 1956, when it became independent. The reigning monarch since
July 1999 has been Mohammed VI. During the last few years, the monarch
has launched reform programmes in the fields of democracy and human
rights. The country has moreover set up a body for the protection
of and reflection on human rights: the Advisory Council of Human Rights
(Conseil consultatif des droits de l’homme). The country’s economy
is based on tourism, new information and communication technologies
and telecommunications. Its GNP is US$39 billion.
14. Morocco’s social and economic situation reveals a number of
contrasts. It is strongly committed to reducing poverty and has
made considerable progress (in 2010, only 13.7% of the population
were still under the poverty level).
Note It
has also made great efforts in recent years to promote employment,
education, housing and equality between women and men, via the family
code and reform of the state. These policies have enabled Morocco
to achieve unemployment rates of 9.6% in 2008
Note and
an estimated 9.2% in 2009,
Note the lowest among the
three Maghreb countries. Nevertheless, the country still faces such
challenges as illiteracy (alphabetisation rate of 52% of the population
in 2007), relatively low rates of school attendance and very high unemployment,
particularly among young people in towns, where the figure is as
high as 30%.
15. The economic policies in operation since 2003, particularly
the national human development initiative in 2005, have led to a
certain macroeconomic stability. However, the economic crisis in
Europe – Morocco’s main export market – has also had an impact on
the country, demonstrating just how interdependent the economies of
Europe and the southern Mediterranean are. Nevertheless, and particularly
thanks to the trade in phosphates, the principal mining resource,
the country’s economy is relatively dynamic, with respectable growth
rates (6.2% in 2008).
16. Since independence and in response to this contrasting situation,
government policy has gone through a number of phases. Starting
in the 1980s, Morocco went through a period of rapid economic reform
with an emphasis on market principles and private enterprise, but
in the last ten years Morocco has been “a scene of raising awareness
of a ‘social’ issue, which can be qualified as a ‘social re-invention’”.
Note This
has led to greater emphasis on policies qualified as “social”, growing
“concern about the capacity to maintain social cohesion” and the
establishment of a certain measure of social dialogue, following
the recent enactment of social laws. Nevertheless, the world of
work in Morocco is characterised by low levels of protection for
employees and rural and informal sectors for which discussions about
social policies have little relevance.
Note
2.3 Tunisia
17. Tunisia is the smallest of the three Maghreb countries,
with about 10 million inhabitants. Like Morocco, it has been independent
since 1956 and since 1987 has been led by President Zine el-Abidine
Ben Ali. Despite a law guaranteeing the political representation
of the opposition in the Chamber of Deputies, the greater part of
legislative and executive powers remains concentrated within the
hands of the president of the republic. Economically, it is fairly
similar to its European counterparts, with a diversified market
economy (GNP of US$22 billion) based particularly on agriculture,
mining, tourism and manufacturing. However, unemployment (14.7% in
2009) and inflation (5% in 2008)
Note are still very high.
The state continues to exercise some control over the economy but
this has been diminishing over the last few years and there has
been growing privatisation. Real economic growth, which remained
constantly around 5%, has declined significantly since 2008 because
of the economic crisis in Europe, Tunisia’s main export market.
18. Economic growth, fuelled largely by household consumption
and exports, has led to a significant rise in incomes and the emergence
of a genuine middle class that now represents more than 70% of the
population and is the binding force of the country’s economy. Tunisia
has the highest quality of life of all the central Maghreb, characterised
by social security coverage that extends to 89% of the population.
The largest part of the country’s budget goes on education. Some
99% of the country’s 6-year-olds attend school and French and English
are taught from a very young age. However, the large number of students
– nearly 300 000 – raises the problem of their massive influx onto
the labour market.
Note
19. Tunisian society is one of the most progressive in the Arab
world, reflected among other things by the status of women, which
is one of the most advanced in Arab society. For example, women
represent more than 50% of students and 29% of judges. In terms
of female representation in parliament, Tunisia even exceeds certain
European countries: the rate of female representation within the
parliament rose from 23% to 27.5% between the elections of 2004
and 2009, whilst women are represented at 18% in France, 22% in
Great Britain and 21% in Italy (figures of respective last elections).
Legislation passed in 1993, 1998, 2003 and 2004 gives women the
same rights as men with regard to divorce and the management of
household accounts, criminalises so-called honour killings, which
are treated as intentional homicide, and makes sexual harassment an
offence. Bearing in mind the Council of Europe’s fundamental values,
with equality between women and men considered as being a major
factor for social cohesion and progress, these developments are
to be warmly welcomed.
20. Tunisian policies to combat poverty and exclusion are based
on national solidarity and a number of corresponding institutions,
such as a national solidarity fund, the Tunisian solidarity bank
and the national employment fund 21-21. The aim is to draw the least
well off and disadvantaged regions into the productive system by
offering them appropriate material and technical resources. Turning
to social policies in general, Tunisia is trying to respond to a
number of social problems by extending and improving social coverage,
the introduction in 2007 of a new health insurance system and assistance
to vulnerable groups of the population through employment, training
and job-finding measures. More specific measures concern adult literacy, protection
of the disabled and assistance to elderly persons.
21. Overall, Tunisia’s development strategy is based on the interdependence
of the economic and social domains and the conviction that the best
way to combat social exclusion is to create employment and maintain a
satisfactory working environment.
Note This
approach is reflected in a number of special multilateral programmes
such as the Youth, Employment and Migration programme, supported
by the Spanish Government, which sets out to strengthen local initiatives
and promote regional skills in job creation in three pilot areas,
particularly affected by youth under-employment and emigration.
Note
2.4 Problems affecting
all three Maghreb countries
22. Despite the differences in their economic and social
circumstances, the three Maghreb countries have certain social characteristics
in common: the youth of their populations, their demographic growth
(Tunisia 1.15%, Algeria 1.21%, Morocco 1.52%) and their fertility
rates (Algeria 1.9%, Tunisia 2.03%, Morocco 2.62%). The latter reflects
the common challenge of reducing population growth. They also show
similar progress with respect to human development, as shown by
their respective human development indices (Algeria: 104th, Morocco:
130th, Tunisia: 98th), which places them all in the “medium” group.
Note
23. Various forms of poverty in the Maghreb countries continue
to encourage social exclusion and stigmatise some sections of the
population. Notably in Algeria and Morocco, the exclusion of certain
social classes is closely linked to the unemployment rate – particularly
among young people, who make up the major part of the population,
to an uneven distribution of national wealth and to inequalities
between men and women, particularly strong in rural areas and amongst
the poor. The three countries are keen to see the emergence of a
middle class that is open to the world and which consumes and communicates,
even in the context of a difficult labour market that is saturated
with qualified young people, but they do not always seem to make sufficient
effort to help the most disadvantaged.
24. Social segregation in the Maghreb takes various forms, including
growing educational disparities, particularly between urban and
rural populations. Among the signs of this is failure at school,
illiteracy and lack of access to schools. According to the World
Bank, rural poverty is one of the major impediments to universal access
to education, for both girls and boys. Poor rural children, and
girls in particular, make up a very large share of those who do
not attend school. One of the biggest challenges is delivering services
to remote rural areas, added to which traditional activities and
values that limit families’ demand for education tend to be stronger
in rural areas. Infrastructure, schools with proper facilities,
and qualified educators can go a long way in increasing rural education,
especially for girls.
Note
25. Rising poverty also deprives the poorest members of the community
of access to basic health care, medicines and different forms of
treatment such as surgery and radiology. Medical prevention and
screening are either lacking or too costly, because of the resulting
need for vaccines, specialist appointments and the diagnosis of
serious conditions. This leads to a decline in the life expectancy
of groups of the population who do not have access to such care.
There is a danger that this problem will increase along with general tendencies
towards an ageing population, which is also happening in the Maghreb.
This has considerable consequences in terms of the need to adapt
care and treatment to cardiovascular and degenerative conditions such
as hypertension and diabetes. There is also the problem of local
medical and hospital facilities for the most socially deprived.
26. Equality between women and men is another victim of this social
exclusion, and it also sadly encourages domestic violence against
women and children. Exclusion in Morocco is much more closely linked
to poverty than it is in France.
Within
this exclusion-poverty relationship, women are the victims of structural
factors such as the economic crisis, debt, structural adjustment
policies and the increased dependency of Third World countries that
increase the “feminisation” of poverty.
Note
27. Social exclusion resulting from economic and educational poverty
may also be accompanied by cultural or religious segregation. Religious
identity takes on major importance because of the style of life
associated with it and the cultural heritage and identity that emigrant
populations take with them to their new homes. This climate can
lead to a retreat into their own identity, which is reflected in
an avoidance of social mixing, even though this is a necessary ingredient
of society, and even, in extreme cases, to terrorism. The resurgence
of terrorism in the Maghreb, as shown by recent attacks, and the
strengthening of the terrorist networks of al-Qaeda Maghreb according
to American intelligence sources,
Note is
rooted, at least partly, in social and cultural segregation.
28. In societies characterised by lack of prospects, certain young
persons may turn to groups based on religious communities, particularly
ones that offer them a future and an existence in which faith alone
is an aspect of social distinctiveness. They then become more receptive
to the sort of extremist discourse that can lead to terrorism. This
refuge in a form of confrontational and violent religious identity
in countries where Islam is the religion of state reflects a crisis
of confidence in the state and its institutions. For these young
people, the state has become incapable of ensuring equality between
all citizens, whereas radical Islam delivers egalitarian messages
in which there are no longer rich and poor but only believers united
in their commitment to reclamation and struggle.
29. However, the social frustration of these groups also leads
to social confrontation and public disorder, in the form of strikes,
demonstrations and so on, in protest against social injustice that
is blamed on corruption and the unequal distribution of wealth.
Thus, there were violent disturbances in Oran in Algeria in May
2008, in the port of Sidi Ifni in Morocco and in Gafsa in southern
Tunisia in June 2008. In Gafsa, a mining town where unemployment
is over 30%, there were riots after unemployed persons gained the
impression that nepotism had led to their being pushed to one side. Finally,
the social exclusion of certain groups may also lead to very specific
social problems such as various forms of crime from petty delinquency
to organised crime, the level of which has risen steadily in recent
years, particularly in connection with trafficking in persons and
drugs.
2.5 Interdependence
with the member states of the Council of Europe
30. Emigration is the result of a difficult social situation,
which it then further exacerbates. In the absence of prospects,
certain unoccupied young Maghrebis turn towards Europe, which retains
an idyllic image that is reinforced by the television channels that
many households watch. The phenomenon of harragas (burners), the
name given to young people who travel illegally to the coasts of
Europe, often risking their lives, is the ultimate gesture of desperate
young people who must leave their lives, families and culture behind.
At the same time, the Maghreb countries are becoming increasingly
countries of immigration for a sub-Saharan population from Chad,
Burkina Faso and Mauritania, driven away by absolute poverty. This
immigration is aggravating the lack of social cohesion in the Maghreb
by creating new categories of excluded groups. The arrival of large numbers
of African immigrants fosters feelings of xenophobia and racism
towards these incomers among people who themselves face poverty
and who consider that this immigration can only make their own economic and
social situation worse.
31. Emigration to Europe is certainly one of the main consequences
of the lack of economic and social prospects faced by certain groups.
It concerns both poor people who are desperately seeking a better
life in Europe through illegal immigration, and well-educated persons
for whom the domestic labour market offers no long-term prospects
and whose departure leads to new social imbalances. According to
the International Organization for Migration (IOM), in 2008 there
were about 2 600 000 North African migrants in Europe and this immigration
is generally a conscious choice of moderately comfortable individuals
and households looking for a better life rather than a desperate
response to deprivation.
Note France, Spain, Italy,
Belgium, the Netherlands and Italy are the main host countries of
these immigrants. France has the largest Maghrebi community, with
nearly 1.5 million persons, not counting all the European citizens,
including children and grandchildren, of Maghrebi origin.
32. To reduce the flow of immigration, certain European countries
sometimes adopt very protectionist anti-immigration strategies that
may even border on violations of human rights. The Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary
Assembly considers that “international migration is a key element
of globalisation and offers valuable potential for growth and development
in both host countries and countries of origin”.
NoteThe
rapporteur considers that all future co-operation between the Council
of Europe and the Maghreb countries should seek to strike a balance
between a more “positive” approach to immigration by the European
countries and a strengthening of legal provisions in the Maghreb
countries to penalise illegal emigration to Europe. The latter have
existed in Morocco since 2003 and Algeria since 2008.
33. Social exclusion does not stop at the frontier but is often
perpetuated in the European countries of origin. Of course, social
exclusion also affects the nationals of those countries but persons
of Maghrebi origin are often particularly threatened by economic
and social exclusion. In France there is a high rate of poverty
among immigrants and their descendants, above all those from the
Maghreb (27.3% risk of poverty in France in 2007 among households
of Maghrebi origin).
Note
34. Poor employment prospects are the main cause of poverty. In
France in 2004, 67% of persons over 18 living in poverty did not
have a job.
Note “Migrants
are also harder hit by joblessness.
In
1999, migrants accounted for 15% of all unemployed, but only 8.6%
of the workforce. Moreover, education and degrees afford migrants little
protection, with unemployment of 16% amongst those with higher level
qualifications.”
NoteAccess to employment is the key
element of social integration. On average, income from work represents
nearly 70% of a household’s income. But employment is not just a
source of income; it also integrates those concerned into a social
network.
Note These
differences in immigrants’ and non-immigrants’ access to employment
are certainly no greater in France than in other countries. They
are thus a shared European problem.
35. All these elements of social exclusion and their consequences,
which are evident in the Maghreb countries and also in certain Council
of Europe member states as a result of immigration, lead to a crisis
of confidence in the state and its institutions, such as the police
and the courts, and this includes Europe. Evidence of this is supplied
by the riots in certain French and Dutch poorer urban outskirts
in which young Maghrebis or persons of Maghrebi origin have taken
an active part. The rapporteur has already produced a report on
the riots in European cities, in which he noted that “riots are
often the end-result of a long process that has its roots in poverty,
social exclusion and the diverse forms of discrimination”.
Note
36. The economic and social interdependence of the Council of
Europe’s member countries and its neighbouring regions takes numerous
forms. To take a couple of highly visible examples that have received considerable
media coverage, one can refer to the mass and sometimes illegal
emigration of young Moroccans who cross the Straits of Gibraltar,
at risk to their lives, or to certain decisions taken by the European
Union that have an effect beyond Europe’s borders, such as the distribution
of fish quotas in the Mediterranean. Overall, the economies of the
three Maghreb countries have also suffered from the crisis in Europe’s
economy, to which they are closely linked. It therefore seems clear
that the Council of Europe’s member states should share their ideas
about how to remedy the economic and social situation with countries
outside Europe that are affected by the same developments.
37. Apart from their commitment to promoting their shared values
beyond the frontiers of Europe, the aforementioned economic and
social interdependence gives the Council of Europe member states
a particular responsibility for supporting social cohesion in the
Maghreb countries. In their common search for strategies to strengthen
social cohesion, the Maghreb countries and the Council of Europe
need to take account of the aspects of international migration that
link them together. Countries of origin should be helped to avoid
the need for young and well-trained persons to emigrate to Europe
because of their lack of prospects. More also needs to be done to
increase understanding of migration, to improve migrants’ level
of integration in European society. Together with social cohesion,
with which it is closely bound up, migration remains a continuing
challenge for the Council of Europe, as the Assembly notes in its
Recommendation 1917 (2010) on
migrants and refugees: a continuing challenge for the Council of
Europe.
3 Co-operation between
the Council of Europe and the Maghreb countries in the field of
social cohesion
38. Although relations between the Maghreb countries
and the Council of Europe member states are sometimes characterised
by less desirable features such as irregular immigration, it is
important to avoid a security-based discourse aimed at protecting
European countries from social problems “imported” from third countries.
The Council of Europe should promote its fundamental values as part
of an open process of exchange directed towards finding common solutions
to shared problems. The countries of Europe and North Africa have
shared many glorious and not-so-glorious moments of history. For
many centuries, Europe was essentially defined by the shores of
the Mediterranean, which the Romans called Mare
Nostrum.
39. All the countries of the world seek economic and social progress
in the interests of their citizens’ progress and well-being, of
which their social rights and maximum possible social cohesion are
also essential ingredients.
And
to these major challenges can now be added that of establishing
effective systems of social security.
In
the course of its parliamentary and intergovernmental activities,
the Council of Europe has produced a number of texts that serve
as reference standards in the field of social rights, together with
certain bodies that are an excellent basis for all future co-operation
regarding social cohesion.
As
the Parliamentary Assembly notes in its
Resolution 1731 (2010), the Mediterranean
region occupies a strategic position in Europe’s neighbourhood.
It has historical, cultural, economic and human links with Europe.
Peace and stability in this region take on a crucial importance
for Europe.
3.1 The Council of
Europe’s acquis in the field of social cohesion
40. The revised European Social Charter (ETS No. 163),
which protects individuals’ fundamental economic and social rights
in their daily lives, is a central reference standard in the field
of social development.When
it came into force, it contained a number of new provisions concerning
the right to protection against poverty, the right to housing, the
right to protection in case of termination of employment and the
rights of employee representatives.The
Social Charter reflects a number of shared values that have roots
in a large number of countries, even though not all states have
ratified it yet. By April 2010, 30 had ratified it and 15 had signed
but not ratified. Some 16 member states remain bound by the 1961
Charter (ETS No. 35), and seven of these have also accepted the
1988 Additional Protocol (ETS No. 128), which extends its material
scope.
41. The Social, Health and Family Affairs Committee is currently
preparing a report on the monitoring of commitments as regards social
rights, thereby continuing to promote the Charter across Europe.Given the challenges of a globalised
economy, and even though it is not at present open for signature
by non-Council of Europe member states, the Social Charter could
still serve as a reference for the Maghreb countries when they seek
to raise their social rights to the highest standards.
42. The Council of Europe’s legal instruments include binding
ones and ones that are concerned with co-ordination. The European
Code of Social Security (ETS No. 48) and its Protocol (ETS No. 48A),
as well as the revised European Code of Social Security (ETS No.
139), set standards in the social security field on the basis of
minimum harmonisation of the level of social security, and set out
the underlying principles of what is referred to as the European
social security model. Co-ordination of social security is concerned
with migrants, namely people who move to another country in order
to live or work. Co-ordination provisions ensure that migrants are treated
fairly as regards social security. They also aim to reduce some
of the disadvantages of migration, particularly in respect of long-term
benefits such as old-age pensions. Co-ordination provisions do not
oblige states to directly alter the substance of their social security
laws.
43. Turning to social cohesion in general, the revised Social
Cohesion Strategy approved in 2004 is still the reference standard,
pending the possible adoption in 2010 by the Council of Europe Committee
of Ministers of a new Social Cohesion Strategy, accompanied by an
equivalent Council of Europe Action Plan.
3.2 Co-operation between
the Parliamentary Assembly and the Maghreb countries
44. The Assembly recently introduced a new basis for
co-operation in the form of its “partner for democracy” status,
to enable non-member states in neighbouring regions to benefit from
the Assembly’s experience in strengthening democracy and participate
in the political debate on common issues that go beyond Europe’s borders.
In its
Resolution 1680
(2009) establishing this status, the Assembly reaffirms
its strong commitment to developing co-operation with neighbouring
regions as a means of consolidating democratic transformations and
promoting stability, good governance, respect for human rights and
the rule of law.
45. At the recent Seminar on the Prospects of Co-operation between
the Kingdom of Morocco and the Council of Europe, in Rabat on 22
and 23 February 2010, the Moroccan authorities made an official
request for “partner for democracy” status. In their common conclusions
of the seminar, Morocco and the Council of Europe identify their
priorities for future co-operation, which will encompass:
- human development through investment
in the country’s living forces, in particular young people and women;
- co-operation in the field of social cohesion;
- protection of children and the establishment of an environment
that helps their development, inter alia, through
the gradual accession of Morocco to Council of Europe conventions;
- promoting the equal participation of women and men in
public and political life, and equal rights in private spheres,
while bearing in mind the cultural values of the Kingdom of Morocco.Note
46. The rapporteur welcomes the conclusions of the Rabat seminar
and hopes that closer co-operation between the Council of Europe
and Morocco will act as a stimulus and serve as an example to other
countries interested in securing the new status, particularly the
countries of the southern Mediterranean. He underlines on this occasion
that, from the point of view of the Council of Europe, equality
between women and men is a fundamental value which should be pursued
independently of any cultural approach, and that this is the line
to be followed rigorously in the co-operation with the Maghreb countries
and in any message addressed to them. He recalls moreover, that,
even outside of the perspective of this formal status, there have
been numerous more informal exchanges with the Council of Europe
in recent years, which he firmly believes should be continued and
strengthened. Most recently, in January 2010, a high-level Moroccan
delegation attended the Assembly’s first part session in Strasbourg
and a high-level Tunisian delegation took part in the second part
of the session in April 2010.
3.3 Main Council of
Europe bodies concerned with co-operation
47. The Maghreb countries have already taken part in
co-operation with the Council of Europe and its Assembly in a number
of areas under existing arrangements. Bodies concerned with social
cohesion or areas related to it include the European Centre for
Global Interdependence and Solidarity (North-South Centre), the European
Commission for Democracy through Law (Venice Commission) and the
Pompidou Group, which is concerned with combating drug abuse and
trafficking.
North-South Centre
48. Following a recommendation of the Parliamentary Assembly,
the North-South Centre was established by the Committee of Ministers
in 1989 with the dual task of raising public awareness of global
interdependence issues and of promoting policies of solidarity in
accordance with the fundamental values of the Council of Europe.
The centre was established in Lisbon in 1990. Its innovative and
visionary character was based on the idea that the fate of Europe
is intimately linked with that of the South and that the nations
and peoples of the world depend on each other in a complex web of
economic, social, cultural and ecological relations, demanding wide-ranging
international co-operation and mutual understanding. Morocco acceded
to the North-South Centre in July 2009. Algeria and Tunisia have
also expressed interest on a number of occasions but have not so
far taken the final step.
49. The centre’s three main focuses of activity are (1) education
and youth, (2) intercultural dialogue and (3) human rights and democracy,
which place it at the heart of any future co-operation in the social
field. According to proposals for a revised statute of the North-South
Centre presented by the Assembly in 2009 in its Recommendation 1893
on the future of the European Centre for Global Interdependence
and Solidarity (North-South Centre), the centre should,
inter alia:
- improve education and information on the fundamental issues
of global interdependence and solidarity;
- provide a framework for dialogue and co-operation between
the Council of Europe and non- European countries or regions, in
particular through education, youth co-operation and intercultural
dialogue, and encourage and promote contacts of this type at parliamentary
level;
- serve as an interface and act as a think tank on interdependence
issues between Europe and the South.
50. In 2010/11, the centre plans to organise seminars to raise
awareness of the Council of Europe in Algeria and Tunisia and a
conference on women as participants in Euro-Mediterranean dialogue,
which will look at topics linked to social cohesion. The same topics
are covered in the centre’s youth programmes and co-operation activities
between young Africans and Europeans.
Note The
centre has done a great deal of work on the issue of migration,
particularly the concept of migration and co-development (as recognised
by the Committee on Migration, Refugees and Population in Recommendation
1917 (2010) on migrants and refugees: a continuing challenge for
the Council of Europe). This issue is also being considered currently
from the standpoint of young Africans living in Europe.
51. The Rabat seminar has enabled the centre to strengthen its
role as the interface between the Maghreb countries and the Council
of Europe. This role is considered to be a priority for the future
and needs to be fully recognised in the discussions leading up to
the Committee of Ministers’ new statutory resolution, whose adoption
is expected shortly. This interface role extends well beyond the
centre’s own activities to encompass all of the Council of Europe’s
areas of activity, thus including social cohesion.
52. The European Union is an active participant in the North-South
Centre through its statutory bodies. The European Commission and
the European Parliament are represented on the Executive Council
and the Commission is also represented on the Bureau. This involvement
highlights the centre’s growing role in the external policy of the
Council of Europe, for whom the partnership with the European Union
is of great importance. The centre receives considerable support
for its activities from the European Commission under the terms
of the joint management agreement 2009-11 between the centre and
the European Commission. This covers the centre’s education (Education
for Global Citizenship/Development in the New European Union Member
Countries) and youth (Africa-Europe Youth Co-operation) programmes.
The centre also participates in the European Commission-Council
of Europe Youth Partnership.
53. As part of the current discussions on the adoption by the
Committee of Ministers of a new statutory resolution for the centre,
following Assembly Recommendation 1893 (2009), there are proposals
to strengthen still further this involvement, in particular by the
inclusion of the Committee of the Regions of the European Union
on the Executive Council, on the same basis as the Commission and
European Parliament, and by relaunching the idea of the accession
of the European Union itself to the North-South Centre. This was intended
from its inception, but has not so far happened. The Assembly has
also raised the question of such closer involvement in its
Resolution 1731 (2010)on the Euro-Mediterranean region:
call for a Council of Europe strategy.
In its
Recommendation
1893 (2009), the Assembly also argued that the centre
should develop working relations with the United Nations system,
the European Union pending its accession and other regional and
international institutions and organisations active in relation
to global interdependence.
54. The rapporteur considers that, in view of its activities and
its successful efforts to organise co-operation with the Maghreb
countries, the centre’s role as an interface between the Council
of Europe and the Maghreb should be strengthened, and that Algeria
and Tunisia in particular should be encouraged to accede to the centre
as soon as possible. Moreover, given the importance of social cohesion
at this time of economic crisis, the centre should take more account
of this topic in its future activities, including aspects of it
in its current or future special programmes.
55. The Assembly has been closely involved in the centre’s activities
since its foundation. It is currently represented on the Executive
Council by two members and two substitutes appointed by the Committee
on Economic Affairs and Development and the Committee on Culture,
Science and Education, in accordance with their respective terms
of reference. To ensure that in future the centre’s activities take
full account of social issues and problems relating to social cohesion,
the rapporteur strongly recommends that a representative of the
Social, Health and Family Affairs Committee also be appointed, with
a view to formally extending co-operation in this area.
Venice Commission
56. The European Commission for Democracy through Law,
better known as the “Venice Commission”, named after the city where
it meets, is a Council of Europe advisory body on constitutional
questions. Set up in 1990, the commission has performed an essential
role in the adoption of constitutions meeting the standards of the
European constitutional heritage. Initially conceived as an instrument
of emergency constitutional engineering in a context of democratic
transition, it has gradually evolved into an independent, internationally acknowledged
forum of reflection. The commission assists in propagating the European
constitutional heritage, founded on the continent’s axiomatic norms,
while continuing to provide states with “constitutional troubleshooting”.
In addition, the Venice Commission plays a unique part in conflict
management and prevention by means of its standard setting and counselling
in constitutional matters.
57. Having been formed in May 1990 as a partial agreement by 18
Council of Europe member states, the commission became an enlarged
agreement in February 2002, enabling non-European states to join
it. The Venice Commission is composed of “independent experts who
have achieved eminence through their experience in democratic institutions
or by their contribution to the enhancement of law and political
science” (Article 2 of the Revised Statute). All Council of Europe
member states are members of the Venice Commission; Morocco and
Algeria joined in 2007, and Tunisia in 2008.
Pompidou Group
58. The Pompidou Group’s principal task is to help frame
in its member states drug prevention policies that are multidisciplinary,
innovative, effective and founded on validated knowledge. Prominent
among the Pompidou Group’s current activities is the “Mediterranean
network for co-operation on drugs and addictions” (MedNET) whose
ongoing projects concern the three Maghreb countries.
Note MedNET aims to foster co-operation,
exchange and two-way knowledge transfer between the countries of
the Mediterranean Basin and the European countries that are members
of the Pompidou Group and donors. Given that the problems linked with
drug taking and illicit trafficking are part of the social challenges
of the three Maghreb countries, and that cross-linkages with Europe
exist in this field too, the rapporteur welcomes the Pompidou Group’s
very substantial action through the MedNET project. He moreover
considers this to be a most pragmatic approach, yielding tangible
results on the ground, from which the Council of Europe and the
Maghreb countries could take inspiration in other future co-operation
projects.
59. Overview of established relations concerning social cohesion
between the Maghreb countries and the Council of Europe:
Note
|
Agency
|
Algeria
|
Morocco
|
Tunisia
|
|
North-South Centre
|
Interest repeatedly shown
|
Member since 1 July 2009
|
Interest repeatedly shown
|
|
Pompidou Group
|
Beneficiary of the MedNET project
(2007-10)
|
Beneficiary of the MedNET project
(2007-10)
|
Beneficiary of the MedNET project;
priorities being set by means of field visits
|
|
Venice Commission
|
Member since 2007
|
Member since 2007
|
Member since 2008
|
|
Others
|
Participation in numerous training
sessions, conferences, study visits, national publications, etc.
|
|
|
3.4 Other avenues of
co-operation
60. Where intergovernmental co-operation within the Council
of Europe is concerned, the Maghreb countries also participate in
various other Council of Europe partial or enlarged agreements.
Algeria and Morocco acceded in 1991 and 1995 respectively to the
European and Mediterranean Major Hazards Agreement (EUR-OPA), are
observers to the European Pharmacopoeia Commission of the Council
of Europe, and have also ratified certain Council of Europe conventions
such as the Convention on Conservation of European Wildlife and
Natural Habitats (ETS No.104) (Tunisia in 1996, Morocco in 2001)
and the Anti-Doping Convention (ETS No. 135) (Tunisia in 2004).
Note Recently,
and also in the framework of the Rabat seminar in February 2010,
Morocco officially acceded to the Enlarged Partial Agreement on
Sport.
Note
61. Other paths of co-operation with the Council of Europe are
envisaged by the Maghreb states today, for instance gradual accession
to other conventions which are becoming international standards
recognised far beyond the boundaries of the European continent.
The aim of this report, however, is not to itemise the existing or
envisaged co-operation schemes, but rather to illustrate the breadth
of the possibilities for exchange. They may, but need not always,
unfold according to very ambitious programmes. Thus, the three Maghreb
countries participate very regularly in activities organised by
or with the Council of Europe. These include training seminars (for
example, on intercultural dialogue, drug addiction and conflict
resolution), joint publications (on drug addiction), and study visits
on more general themes. The rapporteur considers that the Council
of Europe and the Maghreb countries should also benefit from more
random opportunities to co-operate, because each single action furthers
the grand design of building closer relations between Europe and
the Maghreb countries. The Assembly should therefore encourage the
respective bodies of the Council of Europe and the Maghreb countries
to strengthen their co-operation under various arrangements, formal
co-operation structures and more informal exchanges included.
62. All three Maghreb countries endeavour in many ways to draw
generally closer to Europe through various institutions, including
the European Union and the Council of Europe. Furthermore, several
European countries maintain close external relations with the Maghreb,
particularly Spain, Portugal and Italy, whether in their bilateral
relations or in settings of Euro-Mediterranean dialogue (dialogue
5+5,
Note Mediterranean
Forum, etc.). Lastly, Algeria should play a more prominent part
in the Union for the Mediterranean, successfully launched on 13
July 2008.
Note Tunisia
also lays claim to its Mediterranean dimension through its energetic
participation in the Mediterranean Forum, its commitment to the
5+5 dialogue, and its active role in the Euro-Mediterranean process.
63. Through their various activities, the Maghreb countries also
seek to increase their foothold in the European Union, their chief
trading partner. Accordingly, Tunisia is the first country in the
Mediterranean Basin to have signed, on 17 July 1995, an association
agreement with the EU, amplified and supplemented by the Tunisia-EU
Action Plan adopted in July 2005 under the European Neighbourhood
Policy.
Note Concerning Morocco and
its relations with the European Union, the country was granted “advanced
status” at the 7th EU-Morocco Association Council on 13 October
2008.
Note Algeria also participates
in the European Neighbourhood Policy. Algeria and the European Union
moreover have an association agreement that is a legally binding instrument.
Note
64. In the perspective of this general outreach to Europe by the
Maghreb countries, and given that their development strategies are
firmly underpinned by interdependence between the economic and social dimensions,
any future move for co-operation should be made in close collaboration
with the European Union and other European and international agencies
whose action is complementary to that of the Council of Europe.
A fine example is the European Union’s involvement in the work of
the North-South Centre. The time seems right, moreover, to increase
the European Union stake in exchanges on the alleviation of poverty
and exclusion taking place at the level of the Council of Europe:
the European Commission has made these concerns priority themes
in 2010 by declaring it “European Year for Combating Poverty and
Social Exclusion”.
Note
4 Conclusions
65. The three central Maghreb countries – Algeria, Morocco
and Tunisia – continue to pursue their transitions to more democratic,
liberal and cohesive systems. Nonetheless, major challenges persist
where social development and cohesion are concerned, including prevention
of poverty and social exclusion. In times of world economic recession
like these, many social problems do not only affect the Maghreb
countries but are shared with other countries in the world and in
Europe. Various social problems (poverty, exclusion, discrimination,
etc.) are, moreover, characterised by points of interdependence
between Europe and the Maghreb, particularly by way of migration
to Europe.
66. In the context of its co-operation with these countries, the
Council of Europe should strengthen the social component for a variety
of reasons. It is a matter of dealing with the common problems of
social cohesion and giving the Maghreb countries the benefit of
European expertise, but also of better apprehending the underlying social
problems of the population emigrating to Europe, so that these people
may be received with all due respect for human rights. Any future
co-operative action should furthermore proceed in liaison with other European
and international institutions having a strong presence in the Maghreb
countries as regards human and social development, notably the European
Union, which already participates actively in the work of the North-South
Centre.
67. To enhance co-operation with the three Maghreb countries,
the Assembly should take action at the following levels:
- according to the measures taken
by the three Maghreb countries and the validity of their respective applications,
grant them new status, for example “partner for democracy”;
- develop parliamentary exchanges;
- actively further Council of Europe intergovernmental co-operation.
68. In the context of parliamentary co-operation, delegations
from the three Maghreb countries should be regularly invited to
the Parliamentary Assembly’s plenary sessions, and be encouraged
to attend committee meetings. As regards social cohesion, they should
attend the meetings of the Social, Health and Family Affairs Committee
especially. Besides the statutory meetings, the respective delegations
could take part in debates and more informal exchanges in the form
of lectures, courses and other events.
69. In the context of intergovernmental co-operation, the Council
of Europe should carry on highly pragmatic action to implement projects
on the ground, such as the programmes run in connection with the
MedNET project of the Pompidou Group. This project was and continues
to be very favourably received in the Maghreb countries and has
had great success and a most definite impact on the problems of
drug abuse and illicit trafficking.
70. The North-South Centre in particular should be a hub for all
future intergovernmental co-operation with the Maghreb countries.
In the course of its recent activities, it has been able to further
reinforce its role as an interface between the Council of Europe
and the Maghreb, and arouses more and more interest among the countries
concerned. In this way, Morocco officially joined the centre in
2009 while Algeria and Tunisia have signified their interest on
several occasions; they should be strongly encouraged to go through
with this approach. The Assembly is currently represented on the
Executive Council of the centre by the Committee on Economic Affairs
and Development and by the Committee on Culture, Science and Education.
In order to take account of the importance of social cohesion in
the general promotion of Council of Europe values, the Social, Health
and Family Affairs Committee might also be invited to be represented
on the Executive Council of the centre.
71. Among the future co-operation activities conducive to greater
social cohesion may be mentioned:
- childhood
(ill-treatment, illiteracy);
- youth (education, equal opportunities, discrimination);
- labour (access to lasting employment, discrimination,
equality and effectiveness of re-employment aid);
- health (access to care);
- the social sphere (equal opportunities, spatial/geographical
segregation).
72. Lastly, the Maghreb countries – which have already made various
moves to draw closer to the Council of Europe, including accession
to partial or enlarged agreements open to non-member states – should
also persevere in their efforts towards greater future co-operation.
Having regard to the social challenges facing them, they should
be encouraged to place special emphasis on social concerns in all
exchanges with the Council of Europe and its bodies.
